Over the centuries, different civilisations have left their mark on Istanbul. Its architecture is a breathtaking tapestry of styles, reflecting its complex history, with influences from the Romans, the Byzantine Empire, the Ottomans, the Genoese and more.
In this blog I’ll explore the history of architecture in Istanbul, and some of the buildings that have shaped – and continue to shape – the city.
What’s in this blog:
- Roman architecture in Istanbul
- Byzantine architecture in Istanbul
- The Galata Tower and the Genoese
- Ottoman Empire: Reshaping the city
- Classical Ottoman architecture
- Late Ottoman architecture: The influence of the Europeans
- Ottoman timber houses
- A modern city
Roman architecture in Istanbul
In 330 A.D., Constantine the Great made Ancient Byzantium the new capital of the Roman Empire. Constantinople was born. The new capital needed the buildings and monuments that its new imperial status deserved. So Constantine got to work, importing monuments from across the empire and building new ones.
Little remains from this era, in part at least due to the Nika Riots in 532 A.D., which destroyed half the city. But if you know where to look, you can still see remains of the impressive Roman structures of ancient Constantinople.
The Hippodrome
Perhaps most iconic was the Hippodrome – built in 203 A.D. by Emperor Septimus Severus, and then expanded and renovated by Constantine the Great. It was an impressive building, by some accounts able to hold 100,000 spectators, and it was the sporting, social and political centre of the ancient city. Where the Hippodrome once stood is now Sultanahmet Square, an open public space where you can see a track marking out where the race track once was, and a few of the monuments that once adorned the iconic building. You can read more about the Hippodrome and its history here.
The Column of Constantine
A short walk from the Hippodrome you’ll find the Column of Constantine – the oldest Constantinian monument to survive in Istanbul. It was erected in 330 A.D. to commemorate Constantine’s new capital: at the time, it was 50 metres tall, with a statue of the emperor at the top.
Strong winds toppled the statue nearly 1,000 years later, in 1106 A.D. But you can still find the column on Divan Yolu – a road which largely follows the right of the ancient city’s main thoroughfare, and where the column was located.
Aqueduct of Valens
Elsewhere you’ll find the Aqueduct of Valens, completed in 373 A.D. by Emperor Valens. It carried water to the city over a distance of 900 metres and was in use for centuries. You can still see the aqueduct in Istanbul today – notably straddling the Ataturk Boulevard highway. Driving under its arches is a unique way to see the eternal mark the Romans have left on the city.
The Theodosian Walls
Finally, on the edges of Istanbul you can see the impressive remnants of the Theodosian Walls. They were built by Emperor Theodosius II when, after the sack of Rome by the Goths, it became clear that the city needed better defences. The walls expanded on earlier lines of defence, such as those built by Constantine, and were made up of a moat, an outer wall, and a taller inner wall.
The Theodosian Walls were so strong that they kept the city safe during multiple sieges, and are known as one of the largest and strongest fortifications built in times of antiquity. You can still visit a 5km stretch of the wall, which is apparently in varying states of preservation.
Byzantine architecture in Istanbul
In the 6th century, Istanbul suffered one of its most bloody events: the Nika Riots. Sparked by public discontent over high taxes, the riots saw half of the city burned to the ground. Once calm was restored, Emperor Justinian I initiated a monumental rebuilding effort. He wanted to restore the city to the glorious capital that Constantine had envisaged. Many of the ancient monuments that continue to define Istanbul came from this period.
The Hagia Sophia
Undoubtedly the most iconic is the Hagia Sophia, which was built on the site of an even earlier church, completed in 537 A.D.. For almost 1,000 years, it was the largest cathedral in the world.
Hagia Sophia was designed by Anthemius and Isidorus – two architects with a strong knowledge of mechanics and mathematics, which allowed them to overcome problems to design and support the central dome. It was built with a vast interior and a massive central dome, 55 metres high, giving it a sense of grandeur and spaciousness.
To support the dome, pendentives were used, allowing it to transition from a square base to a large circular dome. This was one of the first, and largest, uses of pendentives in a building – which influenced Byzantine (and architecture the world over) for centuries to come.
Byzantine churches
The Hagia Sophia was the crowning achievement of Justinian’s reign and it was seen as the first masterpiece of Byzantine architecture. Elsewhere you can find other Byzantine churches built in this era, masterpieces in their own right.
One is the Little Hagia Sophia – so called because it was thought to be a pro type for the more famous cathedral, though this is now considered unlikely. Close to the Hagia Sophia is the Hagia Irene, inside the grounds of the Topkapi Palace. This is actually the oldest known church in the whole city – though after damage during the Nika Riots, it was repaired and rebuilt by Justinian. The Hagia Irene was also unique for being one of the only churches not to be converted into a mosque, following the conquest of Istanbul by the Ottomans.
The Sunken Palace
It wasn’t just churches that were built during this time, though. Justinian I also built a giant, cavernous cistern, known as the Basilica Cistern – and sometimes called the Sunken Palace.
Similarly to the Aqueduct of Valens previously mentioned, the cistern was built to deal with the issue of getting drinking water to the city – but it’s also an astonishing ancient masterpiece.
There are actually several hundred underground cisterns in Istanbul, but this is the largest. Its size is simply jaw dropping. More than 300 columns prop up the cistern, many of them brought to the city from fallen temples across the Empire.
Throughout the Byzantine Empire, impressive architecture continued to be built in the city. Perhaps the most iconic late Byzantine building is the Chora Church – now known as the Kariye Mosque. Though it’s not as large as other Byzantine churches in the city, it’s famous for its interior which is almost entirely intact – unique in Istanbul – adorned with famous mosaics. The building mostly dates from the 11th century, with the interior we see today added in the 14th.
The Galata Tower and the Genoese
In the 13th century the Genoese – an Italian maritime republic who were expanding at the time – set up a colony on the edge of Constantinople, in the area known as Galata. Between then and the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, the Genoese left their mark.
They created a Genoa away from Genoa, building homes and streets in the same style as their own city. And though almost none of these original buildings survive, one of Istanbul’s most iconic landmarks was built by the Genoese.
The Galata Tower was built in 1348 as part of the Genoese expansion of the colony and at its highest point. It was strategically important, a watch tower as part of the walls of Galata – which were mostly demolished in the 19th century.
At 63m tall it was the tallest building at the time, and remained so until the Beyazit Tower was built in the 1740s. The Tower still dominates the skyline of the old city. After the conquest of Constantinople, the Ottomans continued to use the tower – including as a prison.
Ottoman Empire: Reshaping the city
In 1453, Constantinople was finally (after many, many attempts) conquered by the Ottomans. They had desired the city for centuries, and finally they had it to shape as their own. But after centuries of sieges, crusades and natural disasters, this was not the glittering Constantinople of old.
The Ottomans began work quickly, rebuilding and expanding the existing city. Over the centuries they would reshape the capital with palaces, mosques, hamams and bazaars. Across Istanbul, it is the influence of the Ottomans that is most clearly visible in much of the city’s architecture.
Among the earliest Ottoman buildings in Istanbul are the fortresses that they built in their attempts to take the city. On the shores of the Bosphorus you’ll find the imposing Rumeli Fortress. Built in 1452 on the order of Sultan Mehmed II, the fortress is 250 metres long, with three main towers. Across the river is the even older Anatolian Fortress (Anaoluhisari in Turkish). These two fortresses worked together in the Ottoman’s final siege of Istanbul, allowing them to control the waterways and conquer the city in 1453.
Following the conquest, Sultan Mehmed II didn’t waste any time. Work began on a new imperial palace (now known as the Topkapi Palace) in 1459. But it was a century later, under a new Sultan, that Ottoman architecture in the city would reach its golden age.
Classical Ottoman architecture
In 1520, Suleiman the Magnificent began his long reign as Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. And with him began the classical period of Ottoman architecture. Pioneered by the greatest Ottoman architect of them all – Mimar Siman – many of the most famous monuments and buildings in Istanbul were built during this era.
Sinan was the Chief Court Architect for 50 years, serving under three separate Sultans. In this time he designed at least 300 buildings across the Empire, many in Istanbul. Perhaps his greatest contribution to Ottoman architecture was the Süleymaniye Mosque and complex, considered by some to be the most beautiful mosque in Istanbul. Classical Ottoman architecture was strongly inspired by Byzantine architecture – in particular the Hagia Sophia – and this can be clearly seen in the layout of the Süleymaniye Mosque and its central dome.
After Sinan’s death the classical style became less innovative. But still, over the following years and decades countless jaw dropping mosques were built. When you visit the city, it is these astonishing mosques that stand out, wherever you are. Many were inspired by – or copies of – designs by Sinan. The New Mosque for example, located on the Golden Horn by the Galata Bridge, is in part based on a dome plan designed by Mimar Sinan for the Sehzade Mosque.
Most famous of all – and perhaps most beautiful of all – is the Blue Mosque, designed by Sinan’s apprentice Mehmed Agha. It’s a majestic building, with lavish interior decoration made up of more than 20,000 Iznik tiles. Some scholars suggest that this decoration, along with its sheer size and grandeur, shows the emerging trend of extravagance of the era – compared to, for example, the relatively restrained decorations in the Süleymaniye Mosque.
The exterior and interior of the beautiful Blue Mosque
As well as mosques, many other Ottoman masterpieces were designed during this period. A personal favourite is the Baghdad Pavilion, found in the Fourth Courtyard of the Topkapi Place with a stunning green and blue tiled-facade and elegant porticos.
Late Ottoman architecture: The influence of the Europeans
From the 18th century onwards, Ottoman architecture began to be influenced by architecture in the West – in particular Baroque-style architecture. This reflected the political climate of the time, as the Ottomans gradually opened themselves up to European influence.
One of the most important buildings of this time was the Nuruosmaniye Mosque, built in the 18th century close to the Grand Bazaar. It was the first imperial mosque to be built in a century, and the first monumental Ottoman building in the new Baroque style.
It has a huge central dome – the third largest historic dome in Istanbul – and across the building you’ll find elegant Baroque stone carvings. The mosque heralded the integration of European influences into Ottoman architecture, and inspired many new buildings.
Over the centuries Western influence continued – culminating in an eclectic style of architecture, borrowing from multiple styles. The most significant building of this style is the Dolmabahçe Palace, built in the 19th century and replacing the Topkapi Palace as the administrative centre of the Ottoman Empire. It’s predominantly Neoclassical in style, but also features Baroque and Rococo elements blended with Ottoman design, reflecting the eclecticism that was popular at the time.
Ottoman timber houses
Less immediately obvious than the grand mosques and palaces, timber houses play a huge and important role in Istanbul’s architectural heritage. Much of Istanbul was once made up of wooden houses, and you can still find some wonderful examples of Ottoman timber houses and mansions.
Perhaps best of all are those found on the shores of the Bosphorus. These are known as Yalis, and were popular as holiday homes for wealthy and important families across the Empire. Hundreds were built over the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries. Although many have disappeared or fallen into disrepair, a number of stunning examples remain.
Modern Architecture in Istanbul
Ancient as it is, filled with layer upon layer of history, Istanbul is also ever changing. Across the city you’ll also find numerous masterpieces of modern architecture. The Istanbul Modern is one such example – found on the banks of the water, designed by famous architect Renzo Piano. In recent years numerous skyscrapers have also been built, including the Turkish Central Bank tower – completed in 2024 and becoming the tallest building in Istanbul and Turkey, designed by Turkish based architect Vizzion Mimarlik.
But across the city, you’ll find new examples reflecting the city’s rich architectural heritage, and new examples of innovation. In Uskudar you’ll find Nevmekan Sahil, a library building with a magnificent domed central room – one of the most beautiful libraries you’ll find anywhere, which opened in 2018. Nearby is the Sakirin Mosque – completed in 2009 and believed to be the first mosque designed by a woman in modern times, and also the most sustainable mosque in Turkey.
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